The History of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles and Their Evolution

The concept of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) dates back to the 1940s with the development of the US Navy's QH-50 DASH drone.

The QH-50 DASH was a remote-controlled helicopter used for anti-submarine warfare.

In the 1960s, the US military began exploring the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for reconnaissance missions.

These early UAVs were often modified from existing aircraft designs and were used for surveillance and data collection.

The first operational UCAV was the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, which entered service in 1995.

The MQ-1 Predator was designed for reconnaissance and surveillance, but it also had the capability to engage targets with its Hellfire missiles.

For more insights, see: List of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

The concept of unmanned combat aerial vehicles has been around for nearly a century. The Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, developed in the US, was the first flying bomb to take flight in 1917.

It continued to be a project until 1925, showing that the idea of unmanned aircraft was not new even back then. The RAE Larynx in the UK ran from 1925 to 1929, also exploring the concept of unmanned aerial vehicles.

For more insights, see: History of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

In the 1940s, inventors Lee de Forest and U. A. Sanabria presented their idea for a combat drone in an article in Popular Mechanics. They were among the earliest to explore the concept of unmanned combat aerial vehicles.

The USAAF and US Navy used radio-controlled, unmanned bombers as precision-guided munitions during Operation Aphrodite in 1944. This was an early example of the use of drones in combat.

The Cold War Era saw the introduction of the first unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UAVs). These early drones were used for surveillance and reconnaissance.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the CIA developed the U-2 and OXCART spy planes, which were essentially high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft. They were used to gather intelligence on Soviet missile sites and other military installations.

The first unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UAV) was the Ryan Firebee, developed in the 1950s. It was a radio-controlled aircraft that could carry a payload of up to 100 pounds.

If this caught your attention, see: First Unmanned Airplane

The Soviet Union also developed its own UAVs during this period, including the B-4 and the B-6. These early Soviet drones were used for surveillance and reconnaissance.

In the 1960s, the US military began to explore the use of UAVs for combat missions. The first operational UAV was the AQM-34 Firebee, which was used for reconnaissance and surveillance during the Vietnam War.

In 2011, the Pentagon announced plans to accelerate development of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UAVs) to counter Chinese missile threats in Asia.

The DOD specifically mentioned investing in the N-UCAS, a carrier-launched UAV, as part of its 2012 budget request, announced on January 6, 2011.

Boeing was also working on the X-45N, a UAV in the same sector as the N-UCAS, at that time.

Consider reading: Miniature UAV

The 2000s saw a significant increase in the use of drones, particularly the Predator drones. The US military used them extensively in Afghanistan following the invasion.

The technology became more widely available, and the US began using drone strikes against targets in foreign countries as part of the War on Terror. By January 2014, it was estimated that 2,400 people had died from US drone strikes in five years.

The first "kill" by an American UAV occurred on October 7, 2001, in Kandahar. This marked a significant milestone in the development and use of drones for combat.

The US Air Force and Navy had been working on plans for operational follow-ons to their respective demonstrator programs. However, pressures rose for the two services to merge their efforts.

In October 2003, the Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems (J-UCAS) program was formed under DARPA direction. The goal was to select a single contractor to provide 10 to 12 machines for operational evaluation.

The J-UCAS program was later terminated in favor of a new long-range strategic bomber program, as stated in the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review.

Additional reading: Micro Air Vehicles

In the 2020s, drones became a game-changer in modern warfare. Turkey became the first country to use Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAVs) in a large, coordinated attack on a conventional battlefield in 2020.

Drones were extensively used in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war between Azerbaijan and Armenia. Azerbaijan's use of Turkish TB2 drones was seen as crucial in their defeat of the Armenian forces.

The use of drones in the Nagorno-Karabakh war showed that countries can have air power without the expense of a traditional air force. This was a significant development in modern warfare.

Drones were also used extensively during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Ukraine made extensive use of TB2s and other designs against Russia in 2022.

Ukraine's use of drones was so successful that Russia described a "massive" attack by UAVs and sea drones on their Black Sea Fleet at Sevastopol in October 2022.

N-UCAS was the successor to the J-UCAS program, which was canceled in 2006. The US Navy revived the program, and it was later renamed UCAS-D.

The US Navy's UCAS-D program aimed to develop a carrier-based unmanned aircraft. This was part of a broader effort to reduce the Navy's reliance on short-range manned strike aircraft.

The UCAS-D program was designed to use stealth technologies and precision-guided weapons, such as the Small-Diameter Bomb. This would allow UCAVs to suppress enemy air defenses.

Northrop Grumman's X-47B was a key project in the UCAS-D program. It was a carrier-based unmanned aircraft that could be armed with precision-guided weapons.

In 2011, the Pentagon announced plans to invest in the UCAS-D program as part of its 2012 budget request. This was seen as a way to improve the Navy's ability to project its deterrent power from further offshore.

Boeing was also working on a similar project, the X-45N. This was part of the Navy's efforts to develop a carrier-based unmanned aircraft.

The TAI Aksungur is a notable example of a large drone system, built by Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) for the Turkish Armed Forces.

It is the manufacturer's largest drone, with a payload capacity for mission-specific equipment.

The TAI Aksungur has a wide range of intended uses, including long-term surveillance, signals intelligence, maritime patrol missions, and as an unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV).

Its first unit was delivered to the Turkish Naval Forces on 20 October 2021.

The Elbit Hermes 450 is a versatile unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that has been adapted for use as an assault UAV by the Israeli Air Force. It operates out of Palmachim Airbase south of Tel Aviv.

The Hermes 450 is reportedly equipped with two Hellfire missiles, although some sources suggest it may also carry Rafael-made missiles. Its capabilities have been used in the Gaza Strip and during the Second Lebanon War.

Israel has not officially confirmed the assault UAV capability, but reports from various sources, including Israeli, Palestinian, and Lebanese reports, suggest its use.

Discover more: Uav Combat

The US Air Force has been shifting its focus in the Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle (UCAV) program. The USAF Hunter-Killer program is an example of this shift.

The USAF Hunter-Killer program has been exploring various unmanned aircraft systems for its UCAV needs. The program has considered several aircraft, including the Scaled Composites Model 395 and the Scaled Composites Model 396.

These aircraft are part of the USAF's efforts to develop a long-range strategic bomber. The technology for this program is based on the Lockheed Martin Polecat demonstrator.

The USAF has also been considering other aircraft, such as the General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper and the Aurora Flight Sciences/Israel Aircraft Industries Eagle/Heron 2.

International involvement in unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) began in the 1990s with the development of the Israeli Harpy. The Harpy was the first UCAV to be used in combat, and it was deployed by Israel in 2004.

The US military also started experimenting with UCAVs in the 1990s, with the development of the Predator. The Predator was first used in combat in 2001, during the invasion of Afghanistan.

The Israeli Harpy and the US Predator were both used for reconnaissance and surveillance, but they were not armed with weapons. It wasn't until the development of the US Reaper in the 2000s that UCAVs became capable of carrying out combat missions.

The Reaper was first used in combat in 2007, and it has since been used in several conflicts, including in Pakistan and Yemen. The Reaper's success in these missions has led to its widespread adoption by the US military.

The use of UCAVs by the US military has been controversial, with some arguing that it increases the risk of civilian casualties. However, the US military has maintained that UCAVs have improved its ability to conduct precision strikes and reduce collateral damage.

In the world of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UAVs), multinational corporations and non-state actors have also made their mark. The EADS Surveyor, for example, is a fixed-wing, jet-powered UAV being developed as a replacement for the CL-289.

It's expected to have a top speed of 850 km/h (530 mph), endurance of up to three hours, and be capable of carrying a sophisticated sensor payload, including SIGINT gear. The production Surveyor would also be a stealthy machine.

Non-state actors, however, have used UAVs for more sinister purposes. The Islamic State terrorist group, for instance, began attaching explosives to commercially-available quadcopters like the DJI Phantom to bomb military targets in Iraq and Syria.

These improvised drones were reportedly used during the 2016-17 battle of Mosul, with Islamic State forces using them as surveillance and weapons delivery platforms.

In the realm of multinational efforts, we find the EADS Surveyor, a fixed-wing, jet-powered UAV currently in its preliminary investigation phase. It's being positioned as a replacement for the CL-289.

The Surveyor would be a stealthy machine with a top speed of 850 km/h (530 mph), an endurance of up to three hours, and capable of carrying a sophisticated sensor payload, including SIGINT gear.

It would also be able to carry external loads, such as air-dropped sensors or light munitions.

Non-state actors have been increasingly using drones for malicious purposes. The Islamic State terrorist group began attaching explosives to commercially-available quadcopters in the mid-2010s.

They used these drones to bomb military targets in Iraq and Syria, including during the 2016-17 battle of Mosul. The group reportedly used improvised cradles to drop grenades and other explosives.

An Islamic State drone facility was targeted by Royal Air Force strike aircraft during the battle. Militant groups in Syria have also used UAVs in attacks, such as a swarm of drones armed with bombs targeting Russian bases in western Syria in early January 2018.

Mexican drug cartels started using drones to drop bombs in the 2020s, reportedly targeting both security forces and enemy gangs during turf wars. They've dropped hundreds of drone-carried bombs, escalating the violence in the region.

Drones are commonly referred to as unmanned aerial vehicles, but the term "drone" has gained widespread acceptance.

In May 2015, the Drone-Industry Show officially adopted the term "drone" over "unmanned aerial vehicle" because it's widely recognized and understood.

Drones are used to collect data efficiently and frequently, often more so than other methods.

Company representatives and government employees initially shunned the term "drone" because they thought it didn't convey the vehicles' sophistication.

The use of drones in warfare has led to the development of countermeasures to mitigate their effects. In the Russo-Ukrainian War, Ukrainian soldiers have used GPS signals to guide drones to find Russian artillery, while jamming these signals has caused drones to operate less effectively.

Other systems supplied by the West rely on automation, such as the AeroVironment Switchblade, which can find targets autonomously and require human permission only to engage found targets. This highlights the ongoing evolution of counter-drone technology.

The South Korean Defence Ministry has announced a new series of anti-drone measures, planning to spend 560 billion won over the next five years on initiatives such as an airborne laser to destroy larger drones and a jammer to disable smaller drones.

In the Russo-Ukrainian War, Ukrainian soldiers have been using drones to guide their artillery and find Russian targets. They rely on GPS signals to do this, which can be jammed by Russian forces, causing the drones to operate less effectively.

Jamming drone GPS signals can severely impact their ability to find and engage targets. This is why the West has been supplying Ukraine with automated systems like the AeroVironment Switchblade, which can find targets on its own and only requires human permission to engage.

The Switchblade system is designed to operate autonomously, which makes it less vulnerable to jamming. However, it's not the only counter-drone tactic being used - in October 2022, a video emerged showing two drones colliding and one being rendered unflyable, which could be the first recorded case of drone-on-drone combat.

In South Korea, the military has been struggling to stop North Korean drones from entering their airspace. Despite a five-hour chase involving fighter jets and attack helicopters, all five drones were able to return to North Korea unscathed.

The South Korean military has acknowledged that its ability to stop smaller spy drones is "limited", which is why they're investing in stealthy drones that could penetrate North Korean airspace. This is a major concern for the South Korean government, which is why they're actively employing detection devices to spot enemy drones early on.

The use of drones has significant political effects that are still being felt.

Some scholars argue that the extensive use of drones will undermine the popular legitimacy of local governments, which are blamed for permitting the strikes.

In 2020, U.S. Senators introduced a bill to ban sales, transfers, and exports of large armed drones to countries outside of NATO due to concerns about civilian casualties.

The use of drones for targeted killings has been deemed a breach of international law by the United Nations Special Rapporteur, Philip Alston, unless the U.S. can demonstrate proper precautions and accountability mechanisms.

Forty-five former U.S. military personnel issued a joint appeal to pilots, urging them to refuse to fly due to the violation of domestic and international laws.

Leaders worry about the effect drone warfare will have on soldiers' psychology, citing the risk of losing the deterrent that comes from witnessing the horrors of war.

Civilians in Pakistan and Afghanistan are reluctant to help those hit by drone strikes, fearing they may be killed by follow-on strikes.

Public perception of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UAVs) is a complex issue, with varying opinions depending on the country and demographic. A 2013 poll by Fairleigh Dickinson University showed that 75% of registered voters in the US approved of the military using drones to carry out attacks abroad.

The public's stance on autonomous attacks is also a concern. According to Mark Gubrud, drones are more likely to be hacked if they're autonomous, because the human operator would take control, preventing a potential hack. This raises questions about the safety and control of autonomous UAVs.

A July 2014 report found that a majority or plurality of respondents in 39 of 44 countries surveyed opposed US drone strikes in countries such as Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia.

Civilian casualties are a pressing concern with autonomous attacks. In 2009, The Guardian reported that Israeli UAVs armed with missiles killed 48 Palestinian civilians in the Gaza Strip.

The likelihood of civilian casualties is still significant, despite advancements in technology. According to the Brookings Institution, in US-led drone attacks in Pakistan, ten civilians died for every militant killed.

In some cases, civilian casualties are the result of misidentification. For example, in a 2010 operation near Khod, Afghanistan, over ten civilians were accidentally killed after a drone crew misidentified them as hostile threats.

The consequences of civilian casualties can be severe. A former ambassador of Pakistan said that American UAV attacks were turning Pakistani opinion against the United States.

The number of civilian casualties can be staggering. Between 2004 and 2010, the website PakistanBodyCount.Org reported 1,065 civilian deaths in US-led drone attacks in Pakistan.

The issue of civilian casualties is not limited to one region or country. In Yemen, a 2013 drone strike killed members of a wedding party, according to a Human Rights Watch report.

The incident in Yemen highlights the need for transparency and accountability. Human Rights Watch demanded US and Yemeni investigations into the attack and found no evidence that the individuals taking part in the wedding procession posed an imminent threat to life.

Public opinion on drone strikes is a complex issue. A 2013 Fairleigh Dickinson University poll found that 75% of registered voters approved of the U.S. military using drones to carry out attacks abroad.

However, support for drone strikes varies greatly depending on demographics. Republicans and men are more likely to support U.S. drone strikes, while Democrats, independents, women, young people, and minorities are less supportive.

Outside of the U.S., opposition to drone strikes is widespread. In 39 out of 44 countries surveyed, a majority or plurality of respondents opposed U.S. drone strikes in countries like Pakistan, Yemen, and Somalia.

The only countries where at least half the population supported drone strikes were the U.S., Kenya, and Israel.

Autonomous attacks raise significant concerns about accountability and control.

According to Heather Roff, lethal autonomous robots (LARs) may not be suitable for complex conflicts due to their lack of human sensibility.

The public would likely be more outraged by machine failures than human error, making LARs politically implausible, as argued by Will McCants.

Mark Gubrud claims that drones are more likely to be hacked if they're autonomous, because otherwise the human operator would take control.

Giving weapon systems autonomous capabilities can lead to a loss of control, either due to a programming error, unanticipated circumstances, malfunction, or hack.

International humanitarian law, based on four principles, is unclear about attributing moral responsibility to autonomous systems.

The concept of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UAVs) dates back to the 1940s, with the development of the first UAVs in the United States and the Soviet Union.

The first UAV was the American "Aerial Target" developed in 1944, which was a radio-controlled aircraft used for target practice.

The Soviet Union also developed its own UAVs in the 1940s, with the first being the "Kometa" in 1948, a reconnaissance UAV used for military purposes.

The 1950s saw the introduction of the first U.S. military UAV, the "Ryan Firebee", a drone designed for reconnaissance and surveillance.

Broaden your view: Uav History Timeline

The Ryan Firebee was a significant development in UAV technology, with a wingspan of 20 feet and a top speed of 120 mph.

The 1960s and 1970s saw the introduction of more advanced UAVs, including the "CQM-10" and the "MQM-105", which were used for reconnaissance and surveillance missions.

These early UAVs paved the way for the development of modern UAVs, which have become increasingly sophisticated and capable.

The history of unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UAVs) has seen significant advancements in various system sizes. The first UAVs were small, remote-controlled aircraft used for target practice in the 1940s.

These early systems were often limited in their capabilities and were primarily used for reconnaissance and surveillance. The first operational UAV, the Ryan Firebee, was a small, subsonic aircraft that weighed about 1,000 pounds.

Larger systems have also been developed, such as the MQ-9 Reaper, a high-altitude, long-endurance (HALE) UAV that can carry a range of payloads, including Hellfire missiles and sensors.

In larger systems, the complexity of the interactions between components increases exponentially. This can lead to a phenomenon known as "emergence", where the behavior of the system as a whole is more than the sum of its individual parts.

The example of a flock of birds illustrates this concept, where the movement of individual birds can create a cohesive pattern that would be impossible to predict from their individual movements alone.

A larger system can also exhibit different scales of time and space, making it challenging to understand and model. This is evident in the example of a city, where the interactions between people, buildings, and infrastructure can occur at different scales, from the individual to the urban level.

A key characteristic of larger systems is their ability to adapt and evolve over time, often in response to external pressures or changes. This is seen in the example of a ecosystem, where species can adapt to changes in their environment, leading to new patterns of behavior and interactions.

The interconnectedness of components in larger systems can also lead to unexpected outcomes, such as the cascading effects of a single event. This is demonstrated in the example of a power grid, where the failure of a single component can have far-reaching consequences for the entire system.

Small Aerial Systems are designed to be highly portable and can be easily transported in a backpack. They typically weigh between 5-20 pounds.

These systems are often used for reconnaissance and surveillance missions, where a lightweight and compact design is crucial.

Their small size allows them to be easily deployed in tight spaces, making them ideal for urban operations.

Small Aerial Systems can be powered by rechargeable batteries, providing several hours of flight time.

They are also equipped with advanced sensors and cameras, allowing for real-time video feed and data collection.

These systems are often used in conjunction with larger systems, providing a more comprehensive view of the operational area.

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